Virtual Learning in Higher Education

Gardner was one of the first people to question the idea that intelligence is a single entity that can be measured by an IQ test. Gardner developed a list of eight intelligences and believes that each intelligence has it’s own strengths and constraints. He also claimed that the intelligences did not work independently but are used at the same time and complement each other. Each person has a unique blend of different intelligences just as each person has a unique fingerprint. Gardner’s definition of intelligence is “The capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural settings."[1]
Many people still have a narrow view of what intelligence is. Intelligence is usually related to academic ability, yet people display intellect in so many different ways. Intellectual growth and creativity comes from embracing the dynamic nature of intelligence.

Einstein and da Vinci

People like Albert Einstein (1879-1955) and Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) knew that their strengths came from their creativity and imagination. Einstein said that “Maths is the language nature uses to describe her wonders." [2] He understood the relationship between nature, creativity and science. Einstein was often said to resolve complicated mathematical problems whilst playing his violin in the kitchen. Da Vinci was known as the archetypal "Renaissance man" because of his multiple intelligences in many different disciplines. He was an accomplished artist, architect, musician, scientist, engineer, inventor, botanist, mathematician and writer. Da Vinci believed that everything connects and was able to see these connections between seemingly disparate things. He was fascinated with all branches of learning and understood that his learning and discovery in one area affected his knowledge and understanding of another. Both Einstein and Da Vinci were able to see new connections between events, ideas and circumstances. This ability led them to develop and create new theories, designs and calculations that were revolutionary.

Renaissance Men and Women of the 21st Century

Unfortunately for many famous creative people today, there is a stigma attached to having multiple intelligences or being multi-disciplinary. Having become famous for one particular creative endeavour such as acting or singing makes recognition in other areas a little harder and is often taken less seriously. But why should this be the case? Can’t people have many talents and work in different disciplines like Leonardo Da Vinci did? There are a number of famous people that have been successful in a variety of disciplines such as Shirley MacLaine (1934-). MacLaine is an American theatre actress, dancer, activist and author who has seen great success in all of her fields. Pop singer Gwen Stefani (1969-) has combined a successful career in music and fashion. There are hundreds of ‘celebrities’ who have jumped on the fashion designer bandwagon but Stefani’s success comes from her own trendsetting style and fashion credibility. She believes that music and fashion are a natural part of who she is and that music and fashion all come from the same place of creativity. Bob Dylan (1941-) and David Bowie (1947-) have combined successful careers as both musicians and artists. Dylan has used his own art on three of his album covers and Bowie has his own online art gallery. He sells his work as a painter, sculptor, photographer and printmaker online as well as his collaborations with other artists. Most recently the actor, director and screen-writer Sylvester Stallone (1946-) has emerged as a talented painter; a passion that he began in his teens before he started acting.

Multiple Intelligence Today

Although Da Vinci and Einstein were two of the grand masters of multiple intelligence well before the 21st century; it is equally important to observe the achievements of current renaissance men and women. Dylan, Bowie, Stefani, Stallone and MacLaine have all successfully integrated various aspects of their careers. These people have utilised their creative intelligence rather than logical or mathematical intelligence. This has allowed them to carve a niche from their own personal talents and surpass the stigma often attached to people already famous in one particular field. The question that Howard Gardner poses is “How do we best take advantage of the uniqueness conferred on us as a species exhibiting several intelligences?" [3] Part of that answer may be to observe the inspirational people of the current day and throughout history who have achieved success in many disciplines and against all odds.

Sources Quotes

What are Multiple Intelligences?

Multiple Intelligence Theory was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that traditional ways of testing for intelligence may be biased to certain types of individuals. Think back to the good old school days. Do you remember the girl who was always picked for the lead role in musicals? Who could forget the boisterous class clown? Or whatever happened to the boy who never stopped drawing detailed doodles of cars and planes? Much like then, the perception still exists that intelligence can be measured in relation to reading, writing and arithmetic skills alone, and a person’s future success is judged accordingly. Dr. Howard Gardner, a Harvard Psychologist and Professor of Education, has demonstrated through his extensive research that this notion is, and always has been ridiculous. Instead, he became one of the first to express how we should not judge others according to this narrow definition of intelligence. The original Multiple Intelligence theory was developed in 1983 and first published in his book, ‘Frames of Mind.’ The book strongly suggests that everybody has a different mind, and no two profiles of intelligence are the same. Therefore, the traditional concept of measuring intelligence by I.Q testing is far too restricted. From the 8 primary intelligences, an individual may excel in one, two or even three of these, but nobody’s good at them all. Equally the same rule applies to a child prodigy or mentally/physically disadvantaged person. A brain damaged child could have a severely impaired use of language, but be able to paint or play music magnificently. Dr Gardner indicates that by introducing a broader range of learning methods, (known as the intelligences) educators and indeed parents, can home in on an individual’s strengths and weaknesses by determining their preferred learning style. This would consequently give them the opportunity to learn in ways more productively to their unique minds. A good way to measure this theory is to try the free Multiple Intelligence Quiz at BoffinSquad.co.uk.The results may show a higher achiever who rarely struggles in any school subject may get a less varied graph of results, and may need less individual attention than someone who stands out musically but shows very little logical understanding. This person would probably benefit much more if they could incorporate musical rhythms into maths and not be bombarded by numbers alone. “If a child is not learning the way you are teaching, then you must teach in the way the child learns." (Rita Dunn, - from Anne Bruetsch's Multiple Intelligences Lesson Plan Book)Recently Gardner has posited the existence of a 9th intelligence he calls "Existential". Although Existential is positioned to be identified as an intelligence, at this time Gardner feels that there isn't any neurological evidence of a separately functioning biological existential ability. That is a central criterion in identifying an ability as an "intelligence.Read on to understand about each of the 8 intelligences. The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. These intelligences are:

* Linguistic intelligence ("word smart")
* Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
* Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
* Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
* Musical intelligence ("music smart")
* Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
* Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
* Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence. We esteem the highly articulate or logical people of our culture. However, Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences: the artists, architects, musicians, naturalists, designers, dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others who enrich the world in which we live. Unfortunately, many children who have these gifts don’t receive much reinforcement for them in school. Many of these kids, in fact, end up being labeled "learning disabled," "ADD (attention deficit disorder," or simply underachievers, when their unique ways of thinking and learning aren’t addressed by a heavily linguistic or logical-mathematical classroom. The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a major transformation in the way our schools are run. It suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more (see Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom). The good news is that the theory of multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many educators around the country, and hundreds of schools are currently using its philosophy to redesign the way it educates children. The bad news is that there are thousands of schools still out there that teach in the same old dull way, through dry lectures, and boring worksheets and textbooks. The challenge is to get this information out to many more teachers, school administrators, and others who work with children, so that each child has the opportunity to learn in ways harmonious with their unique minds (see In Their Own Way). The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong implications for adult learning and development. Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make optimal use of their most highly developed intelligences (for example, the highly bodily-kinesthetic individual who is stuck in a linguistic or logical desk-job when he or she would be much happier in a job where they could move around, such as a recreational leader, a forest ranger, or physical therapist). The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole new way to look at their lives, examining potentials that they left behind in their childhood (such as a love for art or drama) but now have the opportunity to develop through courses, hobbies, or other programs of self-development (see 7 Kinds of Smart).

How to Teach or Learn Anything 8 Different Ways

One of the most remarkable features of the theory of multiple intelligences is how it provides eight different potential pathways to learning. If a teacher is having difficulty reaching a student in the more traditional linguistic or logical ways of instruction, the theory of multiple intelligences suggests several other ways in which the material might be presented to facilitate effective learning. Whether you are a kindergarten teacher, a graduate school instructor, or an adult learner seeking better ways of pursuing self-study on any subject of interest, the same basic guidelines apply. Whatever you are teaching or learning, see how you might connect it with

* words (linguistic intelligence)
* numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence)
* pictures (spatial intelligence)
* music (musical intelligence)
* self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence)
* a physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence) a
* social experience (interpersonal intelligence), a
* nd/or an experience in the natural world. (naturalist intelligence).

For example, if you’re teaching or learning about the law of supply and demand in economics, you might read about it (linguistic), study mathematical formulas that express it (logical-mathematical), examine a graphic chart that illustrates the principle (spatial), observe the law in the natural world (naturalist) or in the human world of commerce (interpersonal); examine the law in terms of your own body [e.g. when you supply your body with lots of food, the hunger demand goes down; when there's very little supply, your stomach's demand for food goes way up and you get hungry] (bodily-kinesthetic and intrapersonal); and/or write a song (or find an existing song) that demonstrates the law (perhaps Dylan's "Too Much of Nothing?"). You don’t have to teach or learn something in all eight ways, just see what the possibilities are, and then decide which particular pathways interest you the most, or seem to be the most effective teaching or learning tools. The theory of multiple intelligences is so intriguing because it expands our horizon of available teaching/learning tools beyond the conventional linguistic and logical methods used in most schools (e.g. lecture, textbooks, writing assignments, formulas, etc.). To get started, put the topic of whatever you’re interested in teaching or learning about in the center of a blank sheet of paper, and draw eight straight lines or "spokes" radiating out from this topic. Label each line with a different intelligence. Then start brainstorming ideas for teaching or learning that topic and write down ideas next to each intelligence (this is a spatial-linguistic approach of brainstorming; you might want to do this in other ways as well, using a tape-recorder, having a group brainstorming session, etc.). Have fun! Howard Gardner initially formulated a list of seven intelligences. His listing was provisional. The first two have been typically valued in schools; the next three are usually associated with the arts; and the final two are what Howard Gardner called 'personal intelligences' (Gardner 1999: 41-43).
Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.
Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas.
Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counsellors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives.

Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences - some issues and problems

There are various criticisms of, and problems around, Howard Gardner's conceptualization of multiple intelligences. Indeed, Gardner himself has listed some of the main issues and his responses (1993: xxiii-xxvii; 1999: 79-114). Here, I want to focus on three key questions that have been raised in debates. (There are plenty of other questions around - but these would seem to be the most persistent):
Are the criteria Howard Gardner employs adequate?
John White (1997) has argued that there are significant issues around the criteria that Howard Gardner employs. There are questions around the individual criteria, for example, do all intelligences involve symbol systems; how the criteria to be applied; and why these particular criteria are relevant. In respect of the last, and fundamental question, White states that he has not been able to find any answer in Gardner's writings (ibid.: 19). Indeed, Howard Gardner himself has admitted that there is an element of subjective judgement involved.
Does Howard Gardner's conceptualization of intelligence hold together? For those researchers and scholars who have traditionally viewed intelligence as, effectively, what is measured by intelligence tests - Howard Gardner's work will always be problematic. They can still point to a substantial tradition of research that demonstrates correlation between different abilities and argue for the existence of a general intelligence factor. Howard Gardner (1993: xxiv) disputes much of the evidence and argues that it is not possible, as yet, to know how far intelligences actually correlate. More recent developments in thinking around intelligence such as Robert Sternberg's (1985, 1996) advancement of a 'triarchic model' have shared Gardner's dislike of such standard intelligence theory. However, in contrast to Howard Gardner, Robert Sternberg does not look strongly at the particular material that the person is processing. Instead he looks to what he calls the componential, experiential and contextual facets of intelligence. A further set of criticisms centre around the specific intelligences that Howard Gardner identified. For example, it can be argued that musical intelligence and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are better approached as talents (they do not normally need to adapt to life demands).
Is there sufficient empirical evidence to support Howard Gardner's conceptualization?
A common criticism made of Howard Gardner's work is that his theories derive rather more strongly from his own intuitions and reasoning than from a comprehensive and full grounding in empirical research. For the moment there is not a properly worked-through set of tests to identify and measure the different intelligences. I once thought it possible to create a set of tests of each intelligence - an intelligence-fair version to be sure - and then simply to determine the correlation between the scores on the several tests. I now believe that this can only be accomplished if someone developed several measures for each intelligence and then made sure that people were comfortable in dealing with the materials and methods used to measure each intelligence. (Gardner 1999: 98) Howard Gardner himself has not pursued this approach because of a more general worry with such testing - that it leads to labelling and stigmatization. It can be argued that research around the functioning of the brain generally continues to support the notion of multiple intelligence (although not necessarily the specifics of Howard Gardner's theory). There are further questions around the notion of selfhood that Howard Gardner employs - something that he himself has come to recognize. In the early 1990s he began to look to the notion of distributed cognition as providing a better way of approaching the area than focusing on what goes on in the mind of a single individual (Hatch and Gardner 1993) (see the discussion of social/situational orientations to learning).